In the tenth and eleventh centuries, with multiple church reforms and theological renaissances took place, from the Gregorian Reforms to the Protestant Reformation. As the common people became more involved with the church, many wanted to spread their shared ideology with others, creating divides between different religious groups. The crusades mobilized a force of thousands of Christians to wage war in the name of their God, religious fanatics devoted to their faith. Yet, while others turned to violence, scholars used logic to defend their theological beliefs. It became a powerful weapon in the battle of ideologies in the middle ages, serving as an intellectual reflection of the religious wars throughout the era.
In the middle ages, the existence of God was absolute. “But scholars like Anselm of Bec were not satisfied by belief alone. Anselm’s faith, as he put it, ‘sought understanding.’ He emptied his mind of all concepts except that of God and then, using the tools of logic, proved God’s very existence in his Monologion. Similarly, in an effort to understand and prove their God’s existence, scholars used logic to question universals, if properties of objects truly exist or not, an argument dating back to the ages of Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece. In Christian theology, the idea of realism conflicts with the Scriptures, which state that God only exists in Himself. In an attempt to resolve the debate between universalism and realism, Abelard came to the compromise of conceptualism. His argument was that “every real being outside the mind was entirely singular and in no way common” (Abelard).
In the middle ages, the existence of God was absolute. “But scholars like Anselm of Bec were not satisfied by belief alone. Anselm’s faith, as he put it, ‘sought understanding.’ He emptied his mind of all concepts except that of God and then, using the tools of logic, proved God’s very existence in his Monologion. Similarly, in an effort to understand and prove their God’s existence, scholars used logic to question universals, if properties of objects truly exist or not, an argument dating back to the ages of Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece. In Christian theology, the idea of realism conflicts with the Scriptures, which state that God only exists in Himself. In an attempt to resolve the debate between universalism and realism, Abelard came to the compromise of conceptualism. His argument was that “every real being outside the mind was entirely singular and in no way common” (Abelard).
As such, universals exist, but only do so in the mind of humans. Thus, God exists in Himself and can only be treated as universal in the minds of humans. Furthermore, he argues against universalists who believe that “a human being insofar as he is a human being as Socrates as he is a human being agrees with others… Therefore whatever a human being has Socrates has, and in the same way” (Abelard). And by the same logic, this cannot be true because if human being can have what Socrates can have, what’s to say that a human being can have what God can have? Abelard's argument acts as a logical onslaught, defending his religion and God using logic, just as the crusaders did through their raids and plunders.
Similarly, in Ibn Sina’s Treatise on Logic, he addresses the problems of universals by taking the opposite point of view. He argues that universals are expressions “whose meaning applied to many entities. For example, ‘man’ signifies the same meaning when applied to Zig, Omar, and Mohammed”, and goes on to say that that “The existence of the Essential Universal is a prerequisite for the existence of the Particular” (Ibn Sina). In contrast to Christianity, where God can only exist in Himself, Sina believes that Mohammed the Prophet was a man and is thus under the same category as an ordinary man, whereas Abelard would disagree that Jesus could not be under the same name as a common man. This disagreement shows the divide in religious beliefs at the same and a reflection of how medieval logic was affected by the theological views at the time.
Similarly, in Ibn Sina’s Treatise on Logic, he addresses the problems of universals by taking the opposite point of view. He argues that universals are expressions “whose meaning applied to many entities. For example, ‘man’ signifies the same meaning when applied to Zig, Omar, and Mohammed”, and goes on to say that that “The existence of the Essential Universal is a prerequisite for the existence of the Particular” (Ibn Sina). In contrast to Christianity, where God can only exist in Himself, Sina believes that Mohammed the Prophet was a man and is thus under the same category as an ordinary man, whereas Abelard would disagree that Jesus could not be under the same name as a common man. This disagreement shows the divide in religious beliefs at the same and a reflection of how medieval logic was affected by the theological views at the time.
As such, each scholar argued in defense of their religion, using the universals logical argument as their medium. Furthermore, in the description of Ibn Sina’s document, it states that he believed that “logic – and philosophy more generally – was essential to understanding Islam itself”. As religious tensions increased in medieval periods, scholars used logic to understand their own religious beliefs, both for themselves and others. Perhaps if readers of their works were convinced by their logical defenses of their religions, rather than trusting on blind faith. By using this philosophy to defend their faith, they were upholding their religious values and evangelizing the common people, their readers.
Despite their differences, all three logicians, Abelard, Aquinas, and Ibn Sina, draw on the works of Aristotle. Ibn Sina’s pioneering systemization “of the works of Aristotle laid the foundations of future philosophical thought”, and by the end of the thirteenth century, Aristotle had become the primary philosopher for the scholastics. This is most likely because unlike the three logicians with competing religious views, Aristotle's religious views were unknown, causing no conflict of interest in theology. As such, all three logicians, regardless of their religions, could use Aristotelian logic to supplement their arguments without adding the bias of other belief systems. “Abelard further declared that nothing can be believed unless it is first understood”, proving the necessity of logic to be used as a method to understand religion in order to believe it. Rather than be a hindrance, Aristotelian logic served as a method to elevate the defenses of their religions, proving that not only were their theological traditions supported by their God, but also by their logical interpretations.
While Abelard and Ibn Sina wrote about the universalist argument, others such as Aquinas took a different approach in theological logic. In Aquinas’ Summa Against the Gentiles, he discusses his own views on fornication and marriage, and whether the former is a sin. He concluded that it is not a sin if done for the purpose of procreation. He further argues the virtues of monogamy, using the logic of biology among animals to reiterate his point, stating that “Again, in every species of animal in which the father has some concern for offspring, one male has only one female… But since, of all animals, the male in the human species has the greatest concern for offspring, it is obviously natural that one man should have but one wife and conversely” (Aquinas).
Despite their differences, all three logicians, Abelard, Aquinas, and Ibn Sina, draw on the works of Aristotle. Ibn Sina’s pioneering systemization “of the works of Aristotle laid the foundations of future philosophical thought”, and by the end of the thirteenth century, Aristotle had become the primary philosopher for the scholastics. This is most likely because unlike the three logicians with competing religious views, Aristotle's religious views were unknown, causing no conflict of interest in theology. As such, all three logicians, regardless of their religions, could use Aristotelian logic to supplement their arguments without adding the bias of other belief systems. “Abelard further declared that nothing can be believed unless it is first understood”, proving the necessity of logic to be used as a method to understand religion in order to believe it. Rather than be a hindrance, Aristotelian logic served as a method to elevate the defenses of their religions, proving that not only were their theological traditions supported by their God, but also by their logical interpretations.
While Abelard and Ibn Sina wrote about the universalist argument, others such as Aquinas took a different approach in theological logic. In Aquinas’ Summa Against the Gentiles, he discusses his own views on fornication and marriage, and whether the former is a sin. He concluded that it is not a sin if done for the purpose of procreation. He further argues the virtues of monogamy, using the logic of biology among animals to reiterate his point, stating that “Again, in every species of animal in which the father has some concern for offspring, one male has only one female… But since, of all animals, the male in the human species has the greatest concern for offspring, it is obviously natural that one man should have but one wife and conversely” (Aquinas).
Both of these points follow Christian Scriptures and teachings closely. As such, this is once again an example of a scholar using logic to defend their religion and its traditions. For those who doubted the faith and its rules, Aquinas gave them a different avenue to find faith: through logic. In his work, he cites the Christian Scriptures and Aristotle’s work’s alike, writing phrases such as “as evident from the Philosopher in Ethics”, a work by Aristotle and using Biblical verses to supplement his arguments. Through these citations, Aquinas’ work is a perfect example of the interweaving of logic and theology, revealing the ways they were intricately linked in the medieval ages.
As the medieval renaissance took off during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the seven liberal arts became popular and sought after in schools. Of these subjects, logic was a particular source of pride in the schools and valued above all. As such, when religious divides dominated the political and social landscape of the medieval ages, scholars turned to logic to defend their communities’ theological beliefs. Armed with the tools of Aristotelian logic, scholars such as Abelard, Aquinas, and Ibn Sina argued in defense of their religious traditions, taking the position that in order to believe in their faith, they must first understand it. As such, these scholars performed a “logical crusade” for their faiths, one that can be argued was even more impactful and enduring than the violent crusades other religious citizens turned to, proving the endurance and persuasive power of their works.
As the medieval renaissance took off during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the seven liberal arts became popular and sought after in schools. Of these subjects, logic was a particular source of pride in the schools and valued above all. As such, when religious divides dominated the political and social landscape of the medieval ages, scholars turned to logic to defend their communities’ theological beliefs. Armed with the tools of Aristotelian logic, scholars such as Abelard, Aquinas, and Ibn Sina argued in defense of their religious traditions, taking the position that in order to believe in their faith, they must first understand it. As such, these scholars performed a “logical crusade” for their faiths, one that can be argued was even more impactful and enduring than the violent crusades other religious citizens turned to, proving the endurance and persuasive power of their works.
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